![]() 9 While STI and HE framed a similar awareness by concepts of grand challenges 10 and excellence, 11 in foreign policy it was introduced by the concept of science diplomacy. Whereas most countries (and international organisations) had not even developed dedicated science, technology and innovation ( STI) or higher education ( HE) policies before the 1950s, 7 only recently did foreign policy making become aware that STI and HE - and not only security-related technologies 8 - matter to international relations. In fact, the 19th century heralded a phase of renationalisation toward its excess in the mid-20th century, 6 a period of time that partly hindered knowledge flows across borders. Political leaders in Europe had initially supported the scientific crossing of borders, especially to seize personal reputation and education, before becoming aware that specific scientific methods and results were also relevant for economic profit and national security. 4 The crossing of territorial borders was regarded an essential prerequisite of scientific functional differentiation, 5 as access to hitherto unknown objects of discovery and, most importantly, to communication partners could be ensured. By the early 18th century, international exchange among scholars was already astonishingly intense. 3 Scholars and students immediately enjoyed the privileges of crossing territorial borders and exchanging with kindred spirits under the auspices of local, national and imperial patronage in Europe. In fact, the formation of nation states has co-evolved with the emergence of modern science and higher education: academies and universities were granted exclusive supraregional and supranational rights and became institutional role models proliferating across Europe and beyond. 2 But globalisation and science have also been causally interrelated for centuries. Human circumstances can affect and be affected by global developments and by science, its scrutiny, findings and driving force to advancement that concurrently decreases and increases uncertainties. Globalisation with its interrelated flows of people, technologies, ideas, resources and media, 1 just as well as science cut through almost all aspects of human civilisation. Apart from the fact that science tends to get instrumentalised for particularistic purposes, these reveries are problematic, as they overbook expectations about science and foreign politics that can hardly be fulfilled. Their framing bears on a popular and romantic image of science that would hold salutary capacities to solve problems no matter how complex and that goes into rhapsodies about scientists as cosmopolitans who would eagerly collaborate with kindred spirits regardless of national and cultural contexts. ![]() Reviewing one of its most common definitions, this contribution critically reflects on the sensational promises made by advocates and endorsers of science diplomacy. While some policy actions were newly established and others got into the stride of science diplomacy, the public discourse kept proliferating and has greatly enlarged the concept’s meaning. ![]() For almost twenty years, the concept of science diplomacy has gained momentum in a public discourse that brings together science policy and international affairs. ![]()
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